We found that DJ-I mRNA was expressed in the majority of neurons in all brain areas examined In particular, all dopamine neurons in the ventral midbrain expressed DJ-1 mRNA. In contrast, the choroid plexus and

ependymal cells lining the ventricles were the only non-neuronal regions strongly expressing DJ-1 mRNA. DJ-I mRNA was not detected in astrocytes. The fact that DJ-1 mRNA is expressed in all nigra dopamine neurons but not in astrocytes suggests that its potential neuroprotective role could be cell-autonomous. Moreover, that DJ-1 expression is not restricted to substantia nigra dopamine MI-503 nmr neurons suggests that PD-linked mutant DJ-I may interact with other predisposing factors to cause the relatively selective dopamine neuron degeneration in Parkinson’s disease. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“The coxsackie-adenovirus receptor (CAR) is a developmentally regulated intercellular adhesion molecule that was previously observed to be required for efficient tumor formation. To confirm that observation,

we compared the tumorigenicity of clonally derived test and control cell subsets that were genetically modified for CAR. Silencing CAR in lung cancer cells with high constitutive expression reduced engraftment efficiency. Conversely, overexpressing CAR in lung cancer cells with low constitutive https://www.selleckchem.com/products/z-ietd-fmk.html expression did not affect tumor formation or growth kinetics. A blocking antibody to the extracellular domain of CAR inhibited tumor engraftment, implicating that domain as being important to this process. However, differences in adhesion properties attributable to this domain (barrier function and aggregation) could not be distinguished in the test groups in vitro, and the mechanisms underlying CAR’s contribution Epigenetic Reader Domain inhibitor to tumor engraftment remain elusive. Because high CAR cells displayed a spindle-shaped morphology at baseline, we considered whether this expression was an accompaniment of other mesenchymal features in these lung cancer cells. Molecular correlates of CAR were compared

in model epithelial and mesenchymal type lung cancer cells. CAR expression is associated with an absence of E-cadherin, diminished expression of alpha- and gamma-catenin, and increased Zeb1, Snail, and vimentin expression in lung cancer cells. In contrast, epithelial type (NCI-H292, Calu3) lung cancer cells show comparatively low CAR expression. These data suggest that if the mesenchymal cell phenotype is an accurate measure of an undifferentiated and invasive state, then CAR expression may be more closely aligned with this phenotype of lung cancer cells. Laboratory Investigation (2009) 89, 875-886; doi:10.1038/labinvest.2009.56; published online 8 June 2009″
“Atherosclerosis is increasingly recognized as a chronic inflammatory disease. Angiotensin II (Ang II) is a critical factor in inflammatory responses, so as to promote the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis.

In 5 out of 50 subjects from risperidone group (10%) and in 1 from olanzapine

group (2.6%) testosterone levels were below the tower limit (<241 ng/ml), which reflected Leydig’s cell impairment. In one patient receiving risperidone and in three receiving olanzapine, inhibin B level was below 80 pg/ml, indicating Sertoli’s cell dysfunction. At the final evaluation the mean serum prolactin level was markedly higher in patients taking risperidone, whereas their FSH levels were lower than in patients receiving olanzapine. In all investigated groups, except for the risperidone-hyperprolactinemic group inhibin B levels were negatively correlated with serum FSH. The mean LH, FSH, testosterone and estradiol levels were selleck chemicals llc within the normal reference range at initial and final evaluation. The non-adherence to medications and ASEX scores were significantly

higher in risperidone groups. Sexual dysfunction and medication non-adherence was not related OSI-027 molecular weight to protactin or gonadal hormone levels.

Conclusions: Risperidone elicited higher PRL elevation than olanzapine. Treatment with this gonadotropins (FSH). The cause of olanzapine-elicited reduction of inhibin B level and the tack of negative correlation between FSH and inhibin B in patients with risperidone-induced hyperprolactinemia require further investigation. Patients receiving risperidone showed higher level of sexual dysfunction and treatment non-adherence than those treated with olanzapine. (C) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Objectives: This study tested the hypothesis that monocyte chemotactic protein 1 (MCP1) is required for abdominal aortic aneurysm(AAA) and smooth muscle phenotypic modulation in amouse elastase perfusion model.

Methods:

Infrarenal aortas of C57BL/6 (wild type [WT]) and MCP1 knockout (KO) mice were analyzed at 14 days after perfusion. Key cellular sources of MCP1 were identified using bone marrow transplantation. Cultured aortic smooth muscle cells find more (SMCs) were treated with MCP1 to assess its potential to directly regulate SMC contractile protein expression and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs).

Results: Elastase perfused WT aortas had a mean dilation of 102% (n = 9) versus 53.7% for MCP1KO aortas (n = 9, P < .0001) and 56.3% for WT saline-perfused controls (n = 8). Cells positive for MMP9 and Mac-2 were nearly absent in the KO aortas. Complimentarily, the media of the KO vessels had abundant differentiated smooth muscle and intact elastic fibers and markedly less MMP2. Experiments in cultured SMCs showed MCP1 can directly repress smooth muscle markers and induce MMP2 and MMP9. Bone marrow transplantation studies showed that KO of MCP1 in bone marrow-derived cells protects from AAA formation. Moreover, KO in the bone was significantly more protective than global KO, suggesting an unexpected benefit to selectively depleting MCP1 in bone marrow-derived cells.

The N170 peak latency was delayed to inverted faces regardless of attention condition. These inversion effects were face specific, as similar effects were absent for houses. These results suggest that early stages of face-specific processing can be enhanced by attention, but when faces are not attended the onset of face-specific processing is delayed until the latency range of the N170. Published by Elsevier Ltd.”
“MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenous short (20-22 nucleotides) non-coding RNA molecules

that mediate gene expression. This is an important regulatory mechanism to modulate learn more fundamental cellular processes such as differentiation, proliferation, death, metabolism, and pathophysiology of many diseases. The miRNA expression profile of the kidney differs greatly from that of other organs,

as well as between the different regions in the kidney. In kidneys, miRNAs are indispensable for development and homeostasis. In this OTX015 order review, we explore the involvement of miRNAs in the regulation of blood pressure, hormone, water, and ion balance pertaining to kidney homeostasis. We also highlight their importance in renal pathophysiology, such as in polycystic disease, diabetic nephropathy, nephrogenic diabetes insipidus, hypertension, renal cancer, and kidney fibrosis (epithelial-mesenchymal transition). In addition, we highlight the need for further investigations on miRNA-based studies in the development of diagnostic, prognostic, and therapeutic tools for renal diseases. Kidney International (2012) 81, 617-627; GSK872 ic50 doi:10.1038/ki.2011.448; published online 11 January 2012″
“Methods: Seventy-nine patients were available for baseline analysis, but 16 withdrew from follow-up during the study. Forty-three patients (27M and 16F, age at study entry [mean +/- SD] 69.7 +/- 8.0 years) who were managed conservatively and 8 (age 69.8 +/- 5.7) who were managed with renal revascularization underwent echocardiography and 24 h ambulatory blood pressure investigations at baseline and 12 months thereafter. The two data sets were interrogated to determine changes in blood pressure and cardiac status (morphological and functional);

baseline factors which predicted such changes were ascertained. Twelve patients underwent baseline investigation but did not complete follow-up because of death (nine patients) or requirement of dialysis (three patients).

Results: Conservatively managed patients: At 12 months eGFR, (38.6 +/- 18.3 vs 35.0 +/- 18.5 ml/min; P = 0.001) had fallen whilst proteinuria had increased (0.3 +/- 0.4 vs 0.6 +/- 0.8 g/24 h; P = 0.001). Despite no increase in the number of blood pressure medications there was a fall in blood pressure between baseline and follow-up investigations (140.0 +/- 16.5/75.3 +/- 11.8, MAP 98.6 +/- 12.3 mmHg vs 135.7 +/- 16.1/69.6 +/- 9.1, MAP 92.5 +/- 10.2 mmHg; P < 0.001 for diastolic blood pressure and MAP).

METHODS

We conducted a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial to assess the effect of subcutaneous enoxaparin (40 mg daily) as compared with placebo – both administered for 10 +/- 4 days in patients who were wearing elastic stockings with graduated compression – on the rate of death from any cause among hospitalized, acutely ill medical patients at participating sites in China, India, Korea, Malaysia, Mexico, the Philippines, and Tunisia. Inclusion criteria were an age selleck compound of at least 40 years and hospitalization for acute decompensated heart failure,

severe systemic infection with at least one risk factor for venous thromboembolism, or active cancer. The primary efficacy outcome was the rate of death from any cause at 30 days after randomization. The primary safety outcome was the rate of major bleeding AZD2014 price during and up to 48 hours after the treatment period.

RESULTS

A total of 8307 patients were randomly

assigned to receive enoxaparin plus elastic stockings with graduated compression (4171 patients) or placebo plus elastic stockings with graduated compression (4136 patients) and were included in the intention-to-treat population. The rate of death from any cause at day 30 was 4.9% in the enoxaparin group as compared with 4.8% in the placebo group (risk ratio, 1.0; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.8 to 1.2; P=0.83). The rate of major bleeding was 0.4% in the enoxaparin group and 0.3% in the placebo group (risk ratio, 1.4; 95% CI, 0.7 to 3.1; P=0.35).

CONCLUSIONS

The use of enoxaparin plus elastic stockings with graduated compression, as compared with elastic stockings with graduated compression alone, was not associated with a reduction in the rate of death from any cause among

hospitalized, acutely ill medical patients. (Funded by Sanofi; LIFENOX ClinicalTrials.gov number, NCT00622648.)”
“Purpose: Sexual dysfunction has been associated with pelvic fractures, especially in patients with concomitant urethral injuries. A critical review of the existing literature was performed focusing on the reported definitions CP673451 of sexual dysfunction, its reported incidence, the presence of related risk factors, the methods of assessing sexual function, the timing of this assessment and its management.

Materials and Methods: The PubMed (R) search engine was used in July 2010 to retrieve articles using the terms “”pelvic fracture”" and “”sexual function”" in their title or abstract, published in the English language, from 1989 onward. The references of the selected publications were also evaluated for potential relevant studies according to set selection criteria.

Results: Based on 23 original articles the data of 1,462 patients, with a mean age of 37.7 years (range 15 to 92), were analyzed. The overall mean reported incidence of sexual dysfunction was 35.9% in men and 39.6% in women.

At the same location,

fish were caught and samples of coastal water plants were collected. Fish that were caught included the following species: chub (Leuciscus cephalus), pike (Esox lucius), ide (Leuciscus idus), and roach (Rutilus rutilus). Dominanting species of water see more plants included reed-mace (Typha angustifolia), rigid hornwort (Ceratophyllum demersum), and water knotweed (Polygonum amphibium). Mercury content in samples of water, bottom sediments, water plants, and fish tissues (muscles and gills) were determined by using a Mercury/MA-2000 system (NIC, Japan). The average Hg content in the waters of Tanew ranged between 1 and 5 mu g/L, and in the bottom sediments ranged between 17 and 214 mu g/kg dry weight, which are characteristic values for typical unpolluted areas. The highest Hg contamination of waters and bottom sediments was found where the Tanew estuary enters the San River. Mercury levels in fish from the Tanew delta appeared to be higher compared to other sampling sites. Data indicated that even if water environment is contaminated with Hg to a limited extent, fish accumulate this metal at higher levels, probably due to a bioaccumulation or bioconcentration factor.”
“This study determined the concentrations of copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), lead

(Pb), mercury (Hg), and arsenic (As) in flounder LY2835219 concentration from the southern Baltic for the 1996-2003 period. Analysis of more than 200 samples was used to determine the following: (1) concentrations of Hg and As in muscle tissue

of flounder from different regions of the southern Baltic; (2) concentrations of Hg in the muscle tissue of flounder of different sizes; and (3) temporal trends in the concentrations of trace metals during the 1996-2003 period. A positive correlation between fish length and Hg concentration was noted. Further, the concentrations of Hg and As in flounder were correlated with sampling site. The most heavily polluted region of the Polish Baltic zone was the eastern region of the Baltic Sea. The temporal trend analyses showed significant downward trends in concentrations GSK126 in vitro of Cd, Hg, and Pb in the flounder from the 1996-2003 period. Data suggest a decrease in the concentration of these elements in the environment of the Polish zone of the Baltic. It is noteworthy that no upward trends were noted in the concentrations of trace metals in the fish studied. If the flounder selected for the study are recognized as bioindicators of environmental pollution, then it is possible to conclude that the changes in trace metals concentrations in the Polish zone of the Baltic Sea are being reduced.

We discuss approaches for gaining further insights into the causes of genetic convergence and their potential contribution to our understanding of how the genetic background determines the evolvability of complex organismal traits.”
“Treatment with sAPP alpha, Forskolin price the product of non-amyloidogenic processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) has been shown

to be protective following diffuse traumatic brain injury (TBI), by improving motor outcome and reducing axonal injury. However the effects of treatment with sAPP alpha following a focal TBI have yet to be determined. To investigate this, mice were subjected to a controlled cortical impact injury and treated with either sAPP alpha or its vehicle at 30 min post-injury. Following treatment with sAPP alpha the mice showed a significant improvement in motor and cognitive function early following injury, as determined on the ledged beam and Barnes Maze, respectively, relating to a more rapid rate of recovery. However the effect of treatment with sAPP alpha

was not as dramatic as that seen previously following a diffuse injury. Nonetheless, these improvements in functional outcome were acompanied by a small but significant improvement selleckchem in the amount of cortical and hippocampal at 7 days post-injury, and provide further support for the efficacy of sAPP alpha as a potential neuroprotective agent following TBI. Crown Copyright (C) 2012 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Purpose: Urodynamic studies in children have been performed with increasing frequency as the techniques, reproducibility and reliability of the testing have been refined in the last quarter century. Children of all ages and with a variety of comorbidities are now often referred for urodynamic testing to evaluate and understand the causes of incontinence and/or persistence of

lower urinary tract symptoms, as well as to appropriately define and evaluate treatment regimens.

Materials and Methods: We performed a MEDLINE (R) search for relevant articles on urinary tract dysfunction, neurogenic bladder and urodynamic studies in the pediatric population. We also included 3 major textbooks that addressed the subject matter.

Results: We review the current indications GDC-0994 supplier for urodynamic studies in children with nonneurogenic and neurogenic bladder dysfunction. We summarize the components and techniques of the current practice of urodynamic studies in the pediatric population, and explain how to identify abnormal results. Conclusions: The use of urodynamic studies in pediatrics has become almost mandatory for the effective management of severe or therapy resistant urinary tract abnormalities. This review may be used as a guideline for the appropriate application of urodynamics in this patient population.”
“Rationale Progesterone (P(4)) has actions in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to regulate female sexual behavior in rodents.

Ten of the 11 anterior strictures were treated with urethroplasty. Only 4 of the 12 posterior strictures were treated with urethroplasty, while 8 were managed endoscopically. Our overall success rate for treatment after stent failure was 67% (8 of 12 cases) for posterior urethral strictures and 82% (9 of 11) for anterior strictures.

Conclusions: Urethral stent failure requires complex intervention. A failed posterior

urethral stent can often be managed endoscopically. Conversely we have managed failed anterior urethral stents by urethroplasty.”
“Purpose: We validated a simple scale to measure urinary urgency.

Materials and Methods: The new 10-item scale was validated using data from experiments using a single group repeated measure design. A total of 475 patients, including 411 females and 64 males, with a https://www.selleckchem.com/products/sc79.html mean age of 57.3 years who had been diagnosed with overactive bladder

were treated with a bladder retraining regimen and antimuscarinic agent (10 mg oxybutynin controlled release per night or 4 mg tolterodine slow release per night). At each visit patient urge symptoms were recorded by the scale. Reported average daily frequency and incontinence episodes were also recorded. Of patients who were not satisfied with the symptoms 130 had 25 mg imipramine per night added to their prescription and in 130 treatment was changed to 10 mg solifenacin per night.

Results: Construct validity was tested by comparing the urgency scale to frequency and to Omipalisib nmr incontinence (Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient r = 0.38, p < 0.001 and r = 0.15, p < 0.001, respectively). Internal consistency showed Cronbach’s alpha = 0.83. Test-retest reliability was determined in 30 patients

and interobserver reliability was determined in 58 (Pearson’s r = 0.99, p < 0.001 and r = 0.99, p < 0.001, respectively). Tariquidar nmr Internal responsiveness in the imipramine add-on study in 130 patients showed a standardized response mean of 0.6 (p < 0.001) and in the solifenacin swap study in 130 it showed a standardized response mean of 0.69, while external responsiveness showed a. standardized response mean of 0.69 (each p < 0.001).

Conclusions: This scale succeeded in all validation studies. This new scale may prove useful for measuring between-drug differences in efficacy and for monitoring treatment responses in patients with overactive bladder. It now must be tested in a proper double-blind, randomized, controlled trial.”
“Purpose: We describe the pathophysiology, differential diagnosis and urodynamic findings in patients with a large capacity bladder.

Materials and Methods: This was a retrospective, observational study of 100 consecutive patients with voiding dysfunction and a cystometric bladder capacity of greater than 700 ml. Clinical data, cystometric bladder capacity and other urodynamic findings were evaluated.

Published by Elsevier Ltd.”
“During primary contact with susceptible hosts, microorganisms face an array of barriers that thwart their invasion process. Passage through the basement membrane (BM), a 50-100-nm-thick crucial barrier underlying epithelia and endothelia,

is a prerequisite for successful host invasion. Such passage allows pathogens Go6983 solubility dmso to reach nerve endings or blood vessels in the stroma and to facilitate spread to internal organs. During evolution, several pathogens have developed different mechanisms to cross this dense matrix of sheet-like proteins. To breach the BM, some microorganisms have developed independent mechanisms, others hijack host cells that are able to transverse the BM (e.g. leukocytes and dendritic cells) and oncogenic microorganisms might even trigger metastatic processes in epithelial cells to penetrate the underlying BM.”
“In several autoimmune disorders, including rheumatoid arthritis (RA), autoantibodies are thought to be the driving force of pathogenicity. Glycosylation of the Fc-part of human Igs is known to modulate biological activity. Hitherto, glycosylation of human IgG-Fc has been analyzed predominantly at the level of total AG-120 order serum IgG, revealing

reduced galactosylation in RA. Given the pathogenic relevance of autoantibodies in PA, we wished, in the present study, to address the question whether distinct Fc-glycosylation features are observable at the level of antigen-specific IgG subpopulations. For this purpose, we have AZD9291 molecular weight developed a method for the microscale purification and Fc-glycosylation analysis of anti-citrullinated peptide

antibodies (ACPA). ACPA represent a group of autoantibodies that occur with unique specificity in RA patients. Their presence is associated with increased inflammatory disease activity and rapid joint destruction. Results indicate that ACPA of the IgG I subclass vary considerably from total serum IgG I with respect to Fc-galactosylation, with galactosylation being higher on ACPA than on serum IgG1 for some patients, while other patients show higher galactosylation on serum IgG1 than on ACPA. Using this method, studies can be performed on the biological and clinical relevance of ACPA glycosylation within R-A patient cohorts.”
“The mechanism of selective albuminuria in minimal change nephrotic syndrome, in which glomerular capillaries are diffusely covered by effaced podocyte foot processes with reduced slit diaphragms, is unknown. Podocyte injury is due, in part, to NADPH-induced oxidative stress. Here we studied mechanism of selective albuminuria in puromycin aminonucleoside (PAN) nephrotic rats, a model of minimal change nephrotic syndrome. In these rats, Evans Blue-labeled human albumin was taken up by podocytes and its urinary excretion markedly increased, with retained selectivity for albumin.

Its putative role as a target for neurodegenerative disorders has recently been suggested; yet, little is known about the changes that occur in Sirt1 levels in the aging brain. Here Selleck AG 14699 we show by in situ hybridization that Sirt1 expression is modified in specific areas of the brain in mice upon aging, and that gender also impacts on this regulation. Mice aged 12 and 24 months had a lower Sirt1 expression specifically in the antero ventral thalamic nucleus (AV) and in the arcuate nucleus (ARC) than their young (4 mo)

counterparts, whereas changes were either not noticeable or not significantly modulated in other parts of the brain. Regulation of Sirt1 mRNA levels in the subfornical organ (SFO) and in the substancia nigra part compacta (SNC) depended on gender. These findings suggest that reduced Sirt1 levels upon aging could contribute to a lower Sirt1 activity, and that specific nuclei might be particularly affected. (C) 2010 Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd.”
“Purpose: Prostate inflammation can lead to an increase in serum prostate specific antigen concentration and confound the use of prostate

specific antigen check details kinetics. Repeat prostate specific antigen measurements after a period of observation or a course of empirical antibiotics are controversial in terms of the optimal approach to reduce the confounding impact on prostate cancer screening. This issue was analyzed in patients with a diagnosis of type IV or asymptomatic prostatitis (National Institutes of Health classification) and high prostate

specific antigen.

Materials and Methods: We studied 200 men between 50 and 75 years old with a high prostate specific antigen (between 2.5 and 10 ng/dl). Of these patients 98 (49%) had a diagnosis Birinapant manufacturer of type IV prostatitis. In a prospective, double-blind trial they were randomized to receive placebo (49 patients, group 1) or 500 mg ciprofloxacin (49 patients, group 2) twice a day for 4 weeks. Prostate specific antigen was determined after treatment and all patients underwent transrectal ultrasound guided biopsy of the prostate.

Results: In group 1, 29 (59.18%) patients presented with a decrease in prostate specific antigen and 9 (31%) had cancer on biopsy, while in group 2 there were 26 (53.06%) patients with a decrease in prostate specific antigen and 7 (26.9%) with prostate cancer. There was no statistical difference in either group in relation to prostate specific antigen decrease after treatment or the presence of tumor.

Conclusions: A considerable number of patients (49%) were diagnosed with type IV prostatitis and high prostate specific antigen in agreement with the current literature. Of the patients 26.9% to 31% presented with a decrease in prostate specific antigen after the use of antibiotic or placebo and harbor cancer as demonstrated on prostate biopsy. Prostate specific antigen decreases do not indicate the absence of prostate cancer.

8 times (P<0.05, compared to vehicle) higher permeability. Previously

we reported that AngII mediated hypertension promotes oxidative stress in the vasculature. Thus, we used the superoxide scavenger; 4-hydroxy-TEMPO SC79 in vivo (Tempol) to determine whether AngII via oxidative stress could contribute to higher leukocyte adhesion and increased BBB permeability. Tempol was given via drinking water (2 mmol) on day 4th following Ang II infusion, since oxidative stress increases in this model on day 4. Treatment with Tempol significantly attenuated the increased leukocyte/endothelial interactions and protected the BBB integrity on day 14 of AngII infusion. In conclusion, AngII via oxidative stress increases cerebral microvasculature inflammation and leads to greater immune-endothelial interaction and higher BBB permeability. This finding may open new avenues for the management of nervous system pathology involving cerebrovascular inflammation. (C) 2010 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.”
“Rotaviruses are a major cause of acute gastroenteritis in children worldwide. Early stages of rotavirus assembly in infected cells occur in viroplasms. Confocal microscopy demonstrated learn more that viroplasms associate with lipids and proteins (perilipin A, ADRP) characteristic of lipid droplets (LDs). LD-associated proteins were also found to colocalize with viroplasms containing

a rotaviral NSP5-enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) fusion protein and with viroplasm-like structures in uninfected cells coexpressing viral NSP2 and NSP5. Close spatial proximity of NSP5-EGFP and cellular perilipin A was confirmed by fluorescence resonance energy transfer. Viroplasms appear to recruit LD components during the time course of JIB04 in vivo rotavirus infection. NSP5-specific siRNA blocked association of perilipin A with NSP5 in viroplasms. Viral double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), NSP5, and perilipin A cosedimented in low-density gradient fractions of rotavirus-infected cell extracts.

Chemical compounds interfering with LD formation (isoproterenol plus isobutylmethylxanthine; triacsin C) decreased the number of viroplasms and inhibited dsRNA replication and the production of infectious progeny virus; this effect correlated with significant protection of cells from virus-associated cyto-pathicity. Rotaviruses represent a genus of another virus family utilizing LD components for replication, pointing at novel therapeutic targets for these pathogens.”
“Oxidative stress and inflammation are important processes in the progression of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Recent studies have implicated the role of amyloid beta-peptides (A beta) in mediating these processes. In astrocytes, oligomeric A beta induces the assembly of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase complexes resulting in its activation to produce anionic superoxide.