Eight of the 14 patients completed their day 28–31 PSG, while 11 of the 14 patients completed their day 28–31 clinical assessment. Multiple imputation regression analysis was used to approximate missing data for PSG and clinical Sepantronium Bromide chemical structure measures for 6 of the 14 patients who missed their day 28–31 PSG, and for three who also missed their day 28–31 clinical assessment. In

order to detect an improvement in REM sleep of approximately 45% (the published difference in REM sleep between placebo- and ziprasidone-treated healthy volunteers) [Cohrs et al. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical 2005], 7 patients were needed in each arm, for a total sample size of 14, based on a one-sided normal distribution paired t-test analysis with a significance of 0.05 and 80% power. A sample size of 20 patients was used to allow for patient dropout. Baseline sociodemographic and baseline PSG comparisons between groups were analyzed using two-tailed independent sample t tests. PSG recording Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and clinical measures (except the CGI-I) were analyzed using two-way repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). The design included two treatment groups (between subjects) across three different time points

(within subjects). The linear component, change from baseline to day 28–31, was examined. The CGI-I was analyzed using a between-group t test. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical For all PSG and clinical measures, two-tailed distributions were used. To examine the relationship between PSG and clinical measures, first, the change from baseline to the end of the study was calculated for each measure that produced a significant time × group interaction to create standardized scores. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Two-tailed Pearson correlations were then employed to examine the correlation between each set of standardized scores. All calculations were performed in IBM SPSS Statistics version 19.0. Results Polysomnographic measures The ziprasidone and placebo groups did not differ in baseline PSG Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical measures (Table 2). A significant increase in both the latency to REM sleep and duration of SWS was observed for the ziprasidone group compared with the placebo group,

whereas duration of REM and latency to SWS were not significantly different (Table 2). Duration of stage 2 sleep also significantly improved in the ziprasidone group compared with the placebo group (Table 2). Significant improvements were observed in Mannose-binding protein-associated serine protease various sleep continuity measures, including sleep efficiency, onset to sleep latency, total sleep time, and number of awakenings (Table 2). Table 2 shows the remaining PSG measures for both the ziprasidone- and placebo-treated groups as well as p values for time × group interactions according to two-way repeated measures ANOVA. Table 2. Mean ± standard deviation of selected polysomnographic measures at baseline and at each time point during treatment with ziprasidone (N = 8) versus placebo (N = 6). Subjective sleep quality An overall significant improvement in PSQI total score was observed across time [F (1, 12) = 4.917, p = 0.047].

1″,”term_id”:”169160012″,”term_text”:”EU370903.1″}}EU370903.1)

and Leishmania major isolate Lm-FR-9 kinetoplast minicircle (GenBank: “type”:”entrez-nucleotide”,”attrs”:”text”:”EU370908.1″,”term_id”:”169160017″,”term_text”:”EU370908.1″EU370908.1). Discussion Leishmaniasis occurs as a spectrum of clinical syndromes. With a broad differential diagnosis courtesy of its diverse clinical presentations, CL is a zoonotic disease with a wide range Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of mammalian reservoirs and vectors. It may be widespread on a global scale or focal at a local level because of the specific habitat requirements of the sand fly vectors and its various reservoir hosts.11 Our data showed that P. papatasi was the most dominant species both indoors and outdoors. This species has been adapted to live in human and domestic animal shelters and is largely found in habitats such as bricks and clay houses, stables, and other man-made structures.25 P. papatasi is widespread in the semi-arid Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and arid regions of Mediterranean Europe, North Africa, Middle East, and the Indian

subcontinent.25-27 All of the 10 identified species in this entomological survey have been previously found in southern Iran.22,28 The epidemiology of ZCL varies based on the bio-ecology of the vectors and the species of the species;25 as a result, a necessary factor for Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical designing any effective control strategy is the detection of vectors and their biology.22 Molecular techniques based on parasites’ DNA are useful for this purpose and have been commonly used worldwide.29,30 The nested PCR assay is more sensitive than microscopic dissection for identifying Leishmania infection in Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical sand flies.9 In the Rodrigues et al. study,31 the PCR specific for the subgenus Viannia had a sensitivity of 95.4%, whereas the genus-specific PCR

detected the target DNA in 88.2% of the subgenus Leishmania samples tested. The specificity of the PCR assay, determined with samples from a group with nonleishmaniasis CL, was 100%.31 This is the first report of natural infection of P. papatasi Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with L. major in this endemic focus of ZCL. L. major DNA was detected in 5 (10.41%) specimens of P. papatasi. In recent years, most molecular studies carried out in different parts of Iran, e.g. the Isfahan Amisulpride and Fars Provinces (two important endemic foci of ZCL in the centre and south of Iran), have shown that P. papatasi has a key role in L. major transmission.8-10 Davami et al.32 in a similar study based on observation of amastigotes in dissected sand flies, used a high-sensitive and specific nested-PCR assay designed for kDNA of Leishmania in order to compare the kDNA of sequenced products with signaling pathway GenBank. The results confirming the highest homology of greater than 75% with L. major, the authors concluded that the species isolated from the sand flies was L. major.32 All the infected P.

Response bias has been demonstrated to adapt to all four types of changes in the decision environment (Henriques et al. 1994; Maddox and Bohil 1998; Bohil and Maddox 2001; Taylor et al. 2004; Fleming et al. 2010; Forstmann et al. 2010; Summerfield and Koechlin 2010; Reckless et al. 2013). In a rewarded

memory task, Taylor and colleagues #selleckchem keyword# (Taylor et al. 2004) demonstrated that as the payoff matrix changed, participants altered their response bias to maintain a strategy that optimized the amount of money that could be won. Motivation similarly affects response bias. In a recent perceptual decision-making study, we reported that when motivated, individuals adopted a more liberal response bias, that is, they were more likely to say a target stimulus was present, compared to when they were relatively less motivated (Reckless et al. 2013). This was in keeping with findings from a verbal recognition task, where participants adopted a more liberal response bias when motivated compared Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical to when unmotivated (Henriques et al. 1994). Both animal electrophysiological and human imaging studies have identified brain regions involved in accumulating and comparing sensory evidence (Binder et al. 2004; Heekeren et al. 2004; Pleger et al. 2006); however,

the region or regions which adjust Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the decision criterion from environment to environment have not been thoroughly investigated. Two possible candidate regions emerge. Heekeren and colleagues (Heekeren et al. 2004, 2006) have suggested that the left superior frontal sulcus (SFS) is involved in

comparing accumulated sensory evidence Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for different choices. In a face-house discrimination task, they found that activation in Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the left SFS varied with the difference in signal between regions of the brain representing face and house evidence. It was further found that disruption of this region using transcranial magnetic stimulation affected the rate at which sensory evidence was integrated as well as decision accuracy (Philiastides et al. 2011). Given that the left SFS is involved in handling the comparison of sensory evidence, it is possible that this region is also involved in adjusting how much evidence is needed before a decision is made—the role of the decision criterion. Ketanserin Rahnev and colleagues (Rahnev et al. 2011), while examining the effect of prior expectations on visual discrimination, found that the more an individual became biased to a particular choice in response to a predictive cue, the greater the activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG). Reckless and colleagues (Reckless et al. 2013) similarly found a relationship between a motivation-induced shift toward a more liberal response bias and increased left IFG activation. However, the block design of their study limited the interpretability of this relationship.

The dysfunctional neuronal circuits that, underlie the experience #NLG919 randurls[1|1|,|CHEM1|]# of positive symptoms are likely to involve dysregulated prefrontal-ventrostriatal-ventropallidal-mediodorsal-thalamoprefrontal loops, and their regulation by hippocampal and amygdaline afferents.67,68 The results

of the studies reviewed here directly confirm that these loops are under modulatory influence of subcortical DA. A sudden rise in subcortical DA (such Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical as that measured following amphetamine) will exacerbate these symptoms, while a sudden decline in DA (such as measured following α-MPT) will blunt their intensity. Thus, psychotic symptomatology includes both DA-dependent and DA-independent components, with the respective contributions of each Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical component varying from patient to patient, (and presumably varying with time within the same patient). Fourteen out of the 18 patients agreed to complete the 6 weeks’ period of antipsychotic medication as inpatients (4 patients elected to be treated as outpatients and were excluded from the treatment phase of the study). Compared with baseline, a significant, decrease in positive symptoms was measured after 6 weeks of treatment

(P<0.0001). Changes in negative symptoms were not significant. A large between-subject variability Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical was observed in the improvement of positive symptoms at 6 weeks (28±16%). Higher synaptic levels of DA at baseline, as measured by the α-MPT effect, on D2 receptor BP, were significantly associated with greater improvement, in positive symptoms following 6 weeks of antipsychotic treatment (r 2=53, P=0.0029).Thus, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the dysregulation of DA transmission revealed by the imaging study was predictive of better

response of positive symptoms to antipsychotic treatment. Schizophrenic patients who experienced positive symptoms in the presence of increased DA stimulation of D2 receptors showed a remarkable and rapid decline in these symptoms following treatment, with antipsychotic Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical drugs. On the other hand, subjects who experienced positive symptoms in the presence of apparently normal stimulation of D2 receptors by DA showed little improvement in these symptoms following 6 weeks of antipsychotic treatment. The fact that high levels of synaptic DA at baseline predicted a better or faster response to atypical antipsychotic drugs (13 out of 14 patients were treated Phosphoprotein phosphatase with atypical drugs) also suggests that, the D2 receptor blockade induced by these drugs remains a key component of their initial mode of action. Contrary to widely accepted views, antipsychotic drugs have only partial efficacy against, positive symptoms. A substantial proportion of schizophrenic patients, possibly a third, remain actively psychotic despite appropriate and prolonged blockade of D2 receptors.

SH is the matron at St Luke’s Cheshire AEB071 cost Hospice. She has worked in specialist palliative care for 22 years, and her interests include the role of specialist palliative care in changing public knowledge and behaviour in relation to death and loss. MLW is a Professor at the University of Liverpool, undertaking psychosocial research in palliative care and she is also an Honorary Consultant in Palliative Medicine undertaking clinical outpatient work. Pre-publication history The pre-publication history for this Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical paper can be accessed here: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-684X/12/40/prepub
It is estimated that 39,000 Australians die from malignant

disease yearly. Of these, 60% to 88% of advanced cancer patients suffer xerostomia, the subjective feeling of mouth dryness. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Xerostomia has significant physical, social and psychological consequences which compromise function and quality of life. Pilocarpine is one treatment for xerostomia. Most studies have shown some variation in individual response to pilocarpine, in terms of dose used, and

timing and extent of response. We will Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical determine a population estimate of the efficacy of pilocarpine drops (6 mg) three times daily compared to placebo in relieving dry mouth in palliative care (PC) patients. A secondary aim is to assess individual patients’ response to pilocarpine and provide reports detailing individual response to patients and their treating clinician. Methods/Design Aggregated n-of-1 trials (3 cycle, double blind, placebo-controlled crossover trials using Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical standardized measures

of effect). Individual trials will identify which patients respond to the medication. To produce a population estimate of a treatment effect, the results of all cycles will be aggregated. Discussion Managing dry mouth with treatment supported by the best possible evidence will improve functional status of patients, and improve quality of life for patients and carers. Using n-of-1 trials will accelerate the rate of accumulation below Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical of high-grade evidence to support clinical therapies used in PC. Trial registration Australia and New Zealand Clinical Trial Registry Number: 12610000840088. Keywords: Pilocarpine, n-of-1 trial, Palliative care, Xerostomia, Advanced cancer Background It is estimated that 39,000 Australians die from malignant disease yearly [1]. Of these, 60 to 88% of advanced cancer patients suffer xerostomia [2], the subjective feeling of mouth dryness. Medications, particularly those with anti-cholinergic side effects such as opioids [3], are the most common cause of xerostomia. Other cases are seen in patients receiving radiotherapy for malignant tumours in the head and neck region as treatment may include salivary glands in their fields causing hypofunction.

4 and 67.5, respectively). The mean age was slightly higher among cases than controls (70.2 vs. 67.5 years, P < 0.05). Cases and controls completed questionnaires about smoking status and other exposures including solvent or pesticide exposure, generalized anesthesia, and drinking water from private wells as previously described (Tondel et al. 2006; Dick et al. 2007). The clinical severity of the neurologic condition was graded based on the functional deficit. Grade 1 (mild) clinical severity was defined as minor motor and/or sensory symptoms without functional

deficit. Grade 3 was defined as severe symptoms with functional deficit, including slight ataxia Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical or at least some need for assistance. Grade 2 or moderate severity Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical was defined as those symptoms and deficits that were in between Grades 1 and 3. In the same way, patients were regarded as having grade 1 (mild) STI571 clinical trial neurophysiological findings if neurography and EMG (electromyography) at diagnosis showed a slight decrease of Compound

Motor Axonal Potentials (CMAP), Sensory Nerve Axonal Potentials (SNAP), or Conduction Velocity (CV) in at least two nerves. Grade 3 (severe) neurophysiological findings were defined as loss of sensory or motor responses in at least two nerves as judged in a previous Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical study and Grade 2 (moderate) as those neurophysiological findings in between Grades 1 and 3 (Lindh et al. 2005). Whole blood was collected and leukocyte DNA was isolated with Wizard Genome DNA purification kit (Promega Inc., Madison, Wisconsin). The GSTM1 and GSTT1 null genotypes were assessed in a multiplex polymerase chain reaction (PCR) with β-globin as an internal control gene for a successful PCR amplification (Arand et Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical al. 1996). The amino acid polymorphisms in the mEPHX gene (EPHX1 exon 3) were determined by a PCR-RFLP (restriction fragment length polymorphism) assay (Lancaster et al. 1996; Smith and Harrison 1997). For exon 3, there are three possible genotypes: YY, YH, and HH. The wild-type normal activity allele is YY and the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical low-activity genotype is HH. The ethics committee

at the Faculty of Health Sciences at Linköping University approved the project. Statistical methods The statistical analysis mafosfamide was performed using SPSS version 15. Because neither the controls nor the polyneuropathy patients were normally distributed regarding age, statistical analyses were performed using a nonparametric method; the Kruskal–Wallis test followed by Mann–Whitney U test for post hoc analysis (using Bonferoni’s correction for multiple analyses). The chi-square test was used for categorical variables. For groups with less than five respondents, the analysis was performed with Fischer’s exact test. Relative risk was expressed as odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). Comparisons were considered significant if P-values were <0.05. The polymorphisms were analyzed independent of sex, as the genes are located on the autosomes.

What is the cost of AD to society? The cost of AD to society is the value of all goods and services that society gives up in order to prevent, diagnose, treat, and deal with the disease. The overall cost is made up of direct and indirect costs. In addition to these

costs, society also absorbs expenses associated with AD research and education programs.2 Table I summarizes the definitions of different costs and provides some examples of the components of the cost of AD. Table I Components of cost of Aizheimer’disease (AD). Reasons for Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical discrepancies in the results of cost-of-iliness studies on AD As often in economic analysis, results depend on study methodologies, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical which can differ in many aspects, thus leading to significant discrepancies. In the USA, for

example, the annual cost of caring for an AD patient ranges from $27 700 to $47 000 (see Table II). Following are a number of examples illustrating how the methodology employed to learn more calculate the cost affects the final results. The first type of examples relates mainly to the reliability and accuracy of the data collected, while the second type relates directly to the methods by which the cost itself is calculated. Table II Cost-of-iliness studies. (Numbers are Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical rounded. Some of the published studies on cost of AD follow cohorts of patients prospectively, while other studies collect data retrospectively.

Also, some studies interview caregivers, and others use patients’ medical records and insurance databases. Each method presents advantages Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and disadvantages. Retrospective data obtained from databases are not dependent on the caregiver recollection and interpretation. On the other hand, databases belonging to medical insurance companies and other medical databases contain information on direct cost, but no data on indirect cost. Finally, prospective Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical studies, which supply the most, complete set of data, are very expensive to conduct and are biased by the fact that they include selected patient populations who seek help in academic centers where such studies are conducted. As presented in Table II, the length of time covered e study – which varies from 1 month to 12 months so affects the final results. Florfenicol The longer information is collected, the more stable and generalizable are the results. For example, a single respite hospitalization of an AD patient for 1 week would increase significantly the cost of care if the follow-up period is 1 month, but would not make a significant difference if this cost is spread over a 12-month follow-up study. Similarly, in any kind of clinical study, results are more representative when the sample size is larger, yet cost studies of AD report samples ranging from 120 to 750 subjects (Table II).

Figure 1. Correlations between performance and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) in

normal volunteers and persons with schizophrenia. The ACC lies on the medial surface of the frontal lobes, and the HC is on the medial surface of the temporal lobe. The HC is a small structure in terms of volume, but it plays a critical role in human learning and memory.12 In schizophrenia, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical the function of this structure is abnormal as measured by an increase in neuronal activity relative to the normal volunteer in the anterior region only, with the middle and posterior sections of the structure showing normal rCBF.10 Again, this difference in schizophrenia only appears in the medication-free condition, since treatment with an antipsychotic (either first- or secondgeneration) reduced this abnormal rCBF in the anterior HC.13 Moreover, when probed with noncompetitive N methyl-D-aspartate (NMD A) blockade, specifically ketamine, rCBF in the HC was reduced,

Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical whereas no change occurred with ketamine in normal volunteers (H. H. Holcomb, manuscript in preparation). This observation suggests that the hippocampal cortex in schizophrenia may lack a normal NMDA-antagonism Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical buffer, making this region more susceptible to glutamate blockade at the NMDA receptor in the illness. Functional connectivity in the limbic cortex The data so far suggest functional abnormalities in both limbic cortical structures, the ACC and the HC. On the basis of these data, we hypothesize that the functional connectivity between structures would be altered. Therefore, we used a statistical technique called structural Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical equation modeling (SEM) to test the connectivity within limbic cortex during the performance of an effortful task, an auditory discrimination task. We used scans acquired from 12 normal volunteers and 18 volunteers with schizophrenia during task performance and rest. First, by combining all scans (ie,both groups) Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical into a single analysis, we defined task-activated regions. Then, using an exploratory factor analysis, we examined

which regions Selleck XAV939 showed a correlation with each other. These data, plus the information already known about connectivity about with auditory cortex, were used to construct an a priori hypothesized circuit (albeit simplified), which could mediate the cerebral events associated with task performance. We tested this hypothesized circuit (Figure 2) for “activity” in mediating task performance in the healthy volunteer group and in the schizophrenia group (D. R. Medoff, manuscript in preparation). Figure 2. Functional connectivity: hypothesized circuit. In the normal volunteers, connectivity was evident between the primary auditory cortex, forward through the thalamus and to the middle frontal region, where most likely, the short-term memory aspects of the task were mediated.

Alternative questions, topics, and approaches could yield different results. Conclusions Although there was a relationship between reported alcohol misuse and sexual risk for HIV, there appeared to be a disconnection between reported alcohol misuse, sexual risk for HIV and HIV screening uptake. Perhaps illustrating the connection between alcohol misuse and sexual risk within a brief intervention may create the opportunity for patients to recognize their level of risk, the connection

between alcohol misuse and HIV risk behavior, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and increase uptake of HIV screening in the ED and aid in reducing the prevalence of HIV within this high-risk population. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical competing interests. This research was supported by grants from the National Institute of Drug Abuse (3R01 DA026066-02S1 of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act and 3R01 DA026066-02S2 of the Research Supplements to Promote Diversity in Health-related Research Programs) and the Lifespan/Tufts/Brown Center for AIDS Research (P30 “type”:”entrez-nucleotide”,”attrs”:”text”:”AI042853″,”term_id”:”3286113″,”term_text”:”AI042853″AI042853). Authors’ contributions ADT performed the analyses for the study and prepared

the Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical manuscript. RCM, JRB, GTL and TDN were involved in the study design, execution, analysis and manuscript preparations. TL was involved in the biostatistical analyses Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and manuscript preparation. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Pre-publication history The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here:

http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-227X/13/9/prepub Supplementary Material Additional file 1: Questionnaires Used in the Study. a. Demographic Characteristics. b. Alcohol Use and Misuse Questionnaire. c. Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT). d. Intersection of Alcohol Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical Misuse and Sexual risk for HIV Behaviors. e. HIV Sexual Risk Questionnaire. Click here for file(41K, docx) Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of the research assistants who Axitinib chemical structure conducted the from study, Heidi Guzman, Sara Guevara, Laura Mainardi and Nermarie Velazquez, as well as the staff and patients of the Rhode Island Hospital Emergency Department and the Miriam Hospital Emergency Department who made this study possible.
As the acute diagnostic and treatment centers that provide a primary safety net with a 24/7 portal for rapid inpatient admission, modern emergency departments (ED) serve as a hub for emergency medical systems [1]. Within EDs, there is a rapid grow of Intermediate Care Units (IMCU) that are multi-purpose, high-dependency units [step-up from hospital wards and step-down from intensive care units (ICU)].

2007; Valente et al. 2007). Additionally, Drosophila do not have extended antennae or vibrissae that maintain contact with the wall during movement. However, Drosophila will walk on the vertical arena boundaries in addition to the floor and ceiling of the arena. Centrophobicity was previously questioned as a driving force for wall-following behavior since blind flies, incapable of seeing the arena center, also Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical WEEL phosphorylation significantly prefer edge zones over central locations (Besson and Martin 2005; Liu et al. 2007). The behavior of flies in the parallelogram arenas and the alcove arena is also inconsistent with a strong centrophobic drive in the strict sense of this

term. Wild-type flies demonstrate equal preference for 30° corners and 150° corners, even

though the former is much further from the center and more confined space than the latter. Additionally, the flies did not significantly prefer the alcove, the farthest point from the center, during the initial exploration phase in the alcove arena. Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical The strong alcove preference emerged after the specific exploration phase. During exploration of the arena containing an alcove, the flies still display strong wall-following behavior, indicating wall-following and centrophobicity are separable. Shelter-seeking behavior There was considerable preference for opaque internal corners over clear walls and for the dark alcove over clear Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical circular boundaries. The absence of preference for a darkened wall section lacking a corner and the waning preferences for clear corners indicate that the predilection is for an emergent quality of the orthogonal darkened Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical walls. Rats avoid bright light in an open-field arena and the plus maze, Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical presumably because bright light increases the chances of being spotted by predators (Ennaceur et al. 2006). We suggest the most parsimonious explanation is that these

darkened corners represent shelter. However, this preference for dark corners was evident only when the specific exploration of the boundary waned. In rodents, anxiety induced by novelty is suggested as one of the main driving component of exploratory behavior (Simon et al. 1994; Treit and Fundytus 1988). The need to abrogate novelty with specific Tolmetin exploration can supersede other needs such as hunger, thirst, or even predator avoidance (Hinde 1954; Chance and Mead 1955; Zimbardo and Montgomery 1957). The delayed expression of shelter-seeking behavior in Drosophila indicates that the shelter provided by the darkened corners does not satisfy the need to explore. Low turn angles are not responsible for arena edge preference Creed and Miller differentiated between active wall-following behavior, a positive drive toward the wall, and passive wall-following behavior resulting from dominant movement patterns independent of motivation (Creed and Miller 1990).