We refer to this procedure as the “bootstrap test. Relative power spectra for the odor period were constructed by normalizing the raw power per frequency to the total power in the [2, 200] Hz interval (Figures 5A and 5B). Spike-LFP phase-locking was computed using the pairwise phase consistency method (see Supplemental Experimental Procedures; Vinck et al., 2012). As above, group averages were constructed using the stratified bootstrap

procedure, and their significance was assessed by comparing the T-statistic of the bootstrap distribution to the normal distribution. The authors would like to acknowledge the software tools or assistance provided PFT�� supplier by Prof. Kenneth Harris (Imperial College London, UK) for the use of KlustaKwik, A. David Redish (University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN) for the use of MClust, and Ruud Joosten and Laura Donga (Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience & University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands) for help with rat surgeries. This work was supported by the Netherlands Organization

for Scientific Research–VICI Grant 918.46.609 (to C.M.A.P.) and the EU FP7-ICT grant 270108 (to C.M.A.P.). M.v.W. and C.M.A.P. designed Venetoclax experiments; M.v.W. carried out experiments; V.T., I.R.S.F., and A.J.J. provided major technical assistance. M.v.W. and M.V. analyzed the data; M.v.W., M.V., and C.M.A.P. wrote the paper. “
“Animals and humans make an action quickly and preferentially if the action is expected to provide a valuable reward. This is the hallmark of “goal-directed behavior based on motivational values” (Dickinson and Balleine, 1994). Goal-directedness requires that the outcome of the action should be represented as a goal at the time of performance, and motivation is a mental state that embodies the goal-directedness. These considerations suggest that somewhere inside the brain there are neurons that represent motivation (or the value of an upcoming action) and that the motivational signal facilitates or inhibits the initiation/execution of the action. A prominent candidate for such a

goal-directed motivator is the basal ganglia. It has been shown that activity of STK38 many neurons in the basal ganglia is heavily influenced by expected reward values (Ding and Hikosaka, 2006; Hollerman and Schultz, 1998; Hong and Hikosaka, 2008; Joshua et al., 2009; Kawagoe et al., 1998; Lauwereyns et al., 2002; Pasquereau et al., 2007; Samejima et al., 2005; Sato and Hikosaka, 2002; Shidara et al., 1998). Anatomical studies have suggested that the basal ganglia act as an interface between nonmotor processes and motor processes (Haber, 2003). In particular, the limbic part of the basal ganglia, which includes the ventral striatum (VS) and ventral pallidum (VP) (Heimer and Wilson, 1975), may convert motivation signals to motor signals (Mogenson et al., 1980).