Nawrocki PLX3397 and Hawley, (1987) stated that the 5 °C coldest-month isotherm describes the maximum northward expansion of some vector species including sandflies in continental Asia and, presumably, also in North America. Low temperatures are not the only climatic factor that has to be considered; warm temperatures also play an important role for many vector species. Sufficient precipitation, or perhaps more generally a suitable local moisture regime, is an additional prerequisite for the occurrence of sandfly species. Moisture directly controls the availability of breeding sites and the relative

humidity is an important factor for egg survival (Kasap and Alten, 2005). There are evidences of an increasing risk of establishment of sandfly species, especially in the Atlantic Coast and inland parts of Germany, Switzerland, Hungary and Austria (Depaquit et al., 2005, Farkas et al., 2011, Naucke et al., 2011 and Naucke and Schmitt, 2004). In addition to the detection of already appropriate areas, the findings show additional regions for potential future establishment of the species. It is possible that the sandflies buy Pembrolizumab have already colonized larger areas than previously reported. Large portions of northwestern and central Europe that are inappropriate

for the species today are projected to change during the 21st century towards a climate that can further support the survival of a number of sandfly species. Once they become established, they are very difficult to control. However, the presence of an arthropod vector is not the only factor determining whether or not a pathogen can become established. Even if the vector is abundant, the values of other factors may result in a situation in which introduction of the pathogen does not lead to a large outbreak. Such factors are often environmentally determined, and include the replication rate of the pathogen, the vector biting rate, the host availability and the infectious life span of either vectors or hosts. We therefore need a tool to predict

whether or not sandfly-borne diseases such as canine leishmaniasis or phlebovirus infections can establish after introduction in a certain area and under certain climatic and environmental conditions. At the present time, GNAT2 a higher reported number of imported vectors, an increase in autochthonous transmission of several viral diseases are reported in Europe, especially in southern Europe. These incidents have revealed major obstacles in most European countries such as the lack of updated distribution and/or presence/absence data, cost-effective surveillance, data on species abundance and control strategies. The most important and urgent necessity among the community of entomologists working on phlebotomines is the need to record the extremes of distribution of each species and data on their presence/absence.