IL-21-signalling activates STAT3 that can bind to Bcl6 promoter and activate its expression [86]. Furthermore, Bcl6 and Blimp-1 appear to conform

a mutually repressive loop to regulate both GC B cell and TFH cell development [87]. Interestingly, class-switched plasma cells are able to suppress the function of TFH cells. In contrast to previous assumptions, plasma cells seem to retain the possibility to present antigens to T cells [88]. They are capable of decreasing IL-21 and Bcl6 expression in antigen-specific TFH cells [88], which can potentially GDC-0449 in vitro reduce the capacity of T cells to help follicular B cells. As the T cell help seems to be the limiting factor for high-affinity B cell AZD2014 selection in GCs [89], the loss of TFH function can therefore serve as a novel way to prevent further GC reaction when the sufficient high-affinity plasma cells are already formed. The similar function of Bcl6 and Blimp-1 in both TFH and GC B cells represent an interesting regulatory loop that controls the T cell dependent plasma cell formation. The antagonistic function of Bcl6 and Blimp-1 in directing the differentiated versus undifferentiated developmental stage during the GC-derived plasma cell differentiation represents a genetic switch that can be functional even in different cell types to regulate a common function. This work was supported

by the Academy of Finland, Turku University Foundation, Finnish Cultural Foundation and EVO-funding. “
“Thromboangiitis obliterans (TAO) is a segmental inflammatory occlusive disorder that affects the arm and leg arteries of young smokers. The immune system seems to play a critical role in the aetiology of TAO; however, knowledge of the aspects involved in the progression of vascular tissue inflammation and, consequently, the evolution of this disease is still limited. This study was carried out to investigate the cytokine levels of tumour necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-4, IL-17 and IL-23 in the plasma of TAO patients presenting with acute clinical manifestations. The study included

Sclareol 20 TAO patients (n = 10 women; n = 10 men) aged 38–59 years under clinical follow-up, classified into two groups: (i) TAO former smokers (n = 11) and (ii) TAO active smokers (n = 9); the control groups included normal volunteer non-smokers (n = 10, active smokers (n = 10) and former smokers (n = 10). Patients’ plasma samples were measured using the sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Statistical analyses were performed using the non-parametric Mann–Whitney U-test, with parameters significant at P < 0·05. The activities of all cytokines were different in groups of TAO patients when compared with normal controls, and decreased for control smokers. Increased levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-17 and IL-23 were significant in patients with TAO when compared to the controls (P < 0·005, all parameters).