5 μM of each primer. PCR was performed using the GeneAmp PCR System 2700 thermocycler (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, CA). We used the PCR program described by Smith and Mackie [20] with the following modification:

20 touchdown cycles were used instead of 10, and the annealing temperature was decreased learn more by 0.5°C every cycle (instead of 1°C) from 65 to 55°C. PCR amplification products were analyzed on a 1% E-gel 96 agarose (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA). Amplicon size and concentration were estimated using E-gel Low Range Quantitative DNA Ladder (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, CA) and Syngene Bioimaging System and GeneSnap software (Syngene, Frederick, MD). The DGGE gels were cast using the DCode universal mutation detection system (BioRad, Hercules, CA) as previously described [19]. Briefly, polyacrylamide gels (8%) were Dasatinib mouse prepared and run using 0.5 × TAE buffer. A gradient maker was used (CBS JPH203 purchase Scientific Co., Del Mar, CA) to prepare gels that contained a 30–60% gradient of urea and formamide increasing in the direction

of electrophoresis. A 100% denaturing solution contained 40% (vol/vol) formamide and 7.0 M urea. The polyacrylamide gel wells were loaded with 10 μL of PCR product and 10 μL of 2 × loading dye (0.05% bromophenol blue, 0.05% xylene cyanol and 70% glycerol). Within each feed challenge group, the DNA samples were pooled by treatment after the PCR amplification, and then loaded on the gel to assess the global community structure. The electrophoresis

was conducted with a constant voltage of 130 V at 55°C for about 4 h. Gels were stained with ethidium bromide solution (0.5 μg/mL, 10 min), and washed (0.5 × TAE Obatoclax Mesylate (GX15-070) buffer, 10 min). Gel images were acquired using Syngene Bioimaging System and GeneSnap software (Syngene, Frederick, MD). The GelCompar II v5.10 software (Applied Maths, Belgium) was used to analyze the DGGE gels. To normalize the differences among gels, the same standard was used for each gel. The percentage of similarity between gel standards was 96%. The DGGE profiles were normalized and compared using hierarchical clustering to join similar profiles in groups [21]. To this end, all the images of DGGE gels were matched using the standard and the bands were quantified after a local background subtraction. A 1% tolerance in the band position was applied. The cluster analysis was based on Dice’s correlation index and the clustering was done with the unweighted pair-group method using arithmetic averages (UPGMA). Protozoa counting Protozoa were enumerated in a Dolfuss cell (Elvetec Services, Clermont-Ferrand, France), using a photonic microscope according to the method of Jouany and Senaud [22]. Polysaccharidase activities of solid-associated microorganisms Polysaccharidase activities involved in the degradation of plant cell wall (EC 3.2.1.4 – cellulase and EC 3.2.1.8 – endo-1,4-β-xylanase) and starch (EC 3.2.1.