Accordingly, our data show that these HM have a mixed M1/M2 phenotype as previously reported.[20] Based on our observations that converting HM into M1 phenotype increased, and into M2 phenotype reduced their ability to induce NF-κB-dependent gene expression in HSCs, we conclude that the inflammatory/M1 HM subpopulation contributes to NF-κB activation and HSC survival. It should be emphasized that the M1/M2 classification does not fully account for diverse and often overlapping biological functions of macrophage populations, particularly in the liver.[20]

It is conceivable that different HM populations collaborate for the induction fibrosis in vivo, with inflammatory M1-type HM promoting selleck Pembrolizumab chemical structure HSC survival and M2-type HM affecting HSCs through other pathways. We did not find a significant impact of Gr1 status in HM on NF-κB activation in HSCs (data not shown), suggesting that both recruited and resident macrophages are capable of promoting NF-κB activation in HSCs. Clodronate did not affect HSC activation directly, nor did it alter NF-κB activation in HSCs. Moreover, our results employing DC depletion additionally excluded DC as potential contributors to clodronate effects, as we did not see a contribution of this cell type to liver fibrosis. DCs are key regulators of inflammation

and the cytokine milieu in the fibrotic liver.[12] Moreover, DCs contribute to the regression of liver fibrosis through an MMP9-dependent mechanism.[16] However, the contribution of DCs to fibrogenesis is unknown. Although we found that CD11c-positive DCs induce a moderate degree of NF-κB activation in HSCs via TNF and IL-1 production, we did not observe a role for pDC or cDC in promoting liver fibrosis in BDL- and CCl4-induced liver fibrosis. Most likely, the much

lower number of DCs in the liver in comparison to HMs and the lower potency of NF-κB activation by DCs renders the contribution of DC-derived TNF and IL-1 to the overall pool and NF-κB–mediated HSC survival insignificant. In this regard, the ratio of DCs to HSCs in our coculture experiments is at least one or two magnitudes higher than the ratio that can be achieved in a fibrotic liver. Another possible explanation may be the critical role of DCs in NK cell activation, cells with 上海皓元医药股份有限公司 well-established antifibrogenic potential.[11, 41] None of the available CD11c-DTR based ablation strategies can achieve a completely selective depletion of cDCs without affecting the composition of other immune cells.[26, 27] Even recent transgenic mouse models that avoid early neutrophilia after DC depletion still lead to neutrophilia after 2 days.[27] Although neutrophilia represents a confounding factor, we consider it unlikely that neutrophilia affects fibrogenesis based on previous studies that did not show effects on liver fibrosis.