The peptide antibiotics from the polymyxin–colistin–circulin family (Vogler & Studer, 1966) are active against Gram-negative bacteria; other peptides, such as polypeptins (Sogn, 1976), jolipeptin (Ito & Koyama, 1972), gavaserin and saltavalin

(Pichard et al., 1995), are active against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. The second group includes antibiotics such as gatavalin (Nakajima et al., 1972), fusaricidins (Kajimura & Kaneda, 1996, 1997; Beatty & Jensen, 2002) and LI-F complex (Kurusu et al., 1987), which are active against fungi, actinomycetes and Gram-positive bacteria. Bacteriophage infection of starter cultures remains a significant problem in fermentation see more industries. Many bacteriophages are active against strains of the genus Paenibacillus. Most frequently reported are the bacteriophages infecting P. polymyxa and Paenibacillus larvae, and only a few bacteriophages from P. PR-171 price polymyxa strains have been described in detail thus far. Francis & Rippon (1949) were first to report isolation of four bacteriophages infecting the members of this species. They characterized the host specificity, particle

size, heat resistance, citrate sensitivity and serological reactions of these phages. Other bacteriophages active against P. polymyxa strains were isolated later (Seldin et al., 1984; Starosciak et al., 1985; Matseliukh & Burova, 2004). They were examined by electron microscopy and their lytic spectrum was specified. These double stranded DNA phages are members of the

Siphoviridae and Myoviridae families and, similar to the phages described by Francis & Rippon (1949), they were specific only to the strains of P. polymyxa. One of the bacteriophages – designated IPy1 (Seldin et al., 1984) – was recently used for evaluation of the genetic diversity within the species P. polymyxa (dos Santos et al., 2002). Phage IPy1 DNA served as a probe in hybridization studies. In this study, the bacteriophage ΦBP active against P. polymyxa CCM 7400 is described. We characterized its host spectrum, morphology, structural protein profile, genome size and Resminostat presence of the phage sequences on the bacterial host genome, and identified a cassette of lytic genes in its genome. Bacteriophage ΦBP appears to be a virulent mutant of the temperate phage and is the first such phage of P. polymyxa described in detail. Paenibacillus polymyxa CCM 7400 (Czech Collection of Microorganisms, Brno, Czech Republic) was used as the primary host for the isolation, propagation and characterization of the bacteriophage ΦBP. The isolates of P. polymyxa CCM 7400 represented clones of the same strain picked from agar plates. The following strains of the genus Paenibacillus were tested for ΦBP sensitivity: P. polymyxa S292 and P. polymyxa N36 (both from DSMZ, Germany), P. polymyxa CCM 1460, P. polymyxa CCM 1465, P. polymyxa CCM 2000, P. polymyxa CCM 2001 (all from Czech Collection of Microorganisms, Brno, Czech Republic).

There

is currently insufficient evidence selleck chemical to recommend the long-term or routine use of GH axis drugs for the treatment of HIV-associated lipodystrophy. However, our review shows that these drugs can be effective in producing substantial reductions in VAT mass and significant increases in LBM. This may result in short- or long-term improvements in metabolic derangements and/or self-perceptions of body image. Thus, clinicians may consider using this category of drugs in the treatment of individual patients whom they feel may benefit. Generally, the GH axis drugs were well tolerated, as the overall number of side effects was not significantly different between the intervention and placebo groups. However, subgroup analysis revealed that patients receiving GH axis drugs experienced a higher rate of arthralgias and peripheral oedema. The beneficial effect of this category of drugs on VAT mass and LBM provides insights into the

pathophysiology of HIV-associated lipodystrophy and its relation to the GH axis. These results may instigate further research into both the pathogenesis of this disorder and other potential treatments for this condition along this axis. Because negative perception of body habitus is a common cause of noncompliance with HAART, future studies should examine the effects of GH axis treatments on compliance with HAART and the effect of these treatments on body image perception. Few studies evaluated the retention of the benefits of treatment after discontinuation of the drug, and further studies need to examine the long-term benefits of treatment. Finally, long-term studies are needed to GSK458 price evaluate adverse events many associated with prolonged use of these drugs. We would like to thank Dr. Robin Larson for her invaluable assistance in the preparation of this systematic review. “
“Surrogate markers of HIV disease progression are HIV RNA in plasma viral load (VL) and CD4 cell count (immune function). Despite improved international access to antiretrovirals, surrogate marker diagnostics are not routinely available in resource-limited settings. Therefore, the objective was to assess effects

of economic and diagnostic resourcing on patient treatment outcomes. Analyses were based on 2333 patients initiating highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) from 2000 onwards. Sites were categorized by World Bank country income criteria (high/low) and annual frequency of VL (≥3, 1–2 or <1) or CD4 (≥3 or <3) testing. Endpoints were time to AIDS/death and change in CD4 cell count and VL suppression (<400 HIV-1 RNA copies/mL) at 12 months. Demographics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) classification, baseline VL/CD4 cell counts, hepatitis B/C coinfections and HAART regimen were covariates. Time to AIDS/death was analysed by proportional hazards models. CD4 and VL endpoints were analysed using linear and logistic regression, respectively.

Little variation was observed during the replicate experiments. The standard deviation for

the antirestriction results is 25% or less. Data on antirestriction activity of the recombinant plasmid pKLH53.1, containing Tn5053, are given in Table 2. The factor of restriction relief (R) is about 100. We suspected that the nucleotide sequence of the mercury-resistance transposon Tn5053 contains a fragment encoding an antirestriction protein. We used both insertion and deletion mutants of Tn5053 for all transposition genes (tni) as well as plasmid constructs containing various fragments of the Tn5053 DNA, while searching for the locus responsible for the antirestriction activity (Fig. 1). The results of searches find more for the determinant of antirestriction activity Selleck PD0325901 within Tn5053 are shown in Table 2. It is evident that neither insertion (plasmids pKLH53.1tniA, pKLH53.1tniB2) or deletion (plasmids pKLH53.1tniQ2 and pKLH53.1tniQ1) mutations of the tni genes have any effect on antirestriction activity: about 100-fold decrease in EcoKI restriction level is preserved. Deletion of the major part of the mer operon (plasmid

pTLΔHindIII) completely removed the effect of antirestriction (Table 2). We assumed that the location of the gene coding for an antirestriction protein is within the mer operon. However, the recombinant plasmids pTLHindIII-ClaI and pTL2.5 with fragments HindIII-ClaI and HindIII from the mer operon (without the merR gene) in vector pUC19 show no antirestriction effect (Table 2). No antirestriction effect was also observed for the hybrid plasmid pKLH53.2, containing all the genes tni Tn5053 under its own promoter (in vector pACYC184; Fig. 1, Table 2). A paradox appeared: the mer operon together with the transposition genes (tni) of Tn5053 produce an antirestriction effect, while the plasmids with separately cloned mer operon or tni genes show no antirestriction effect.

We considered that the nucleotide sequence coding for the ORF with antirestriction activity is located within the region of the tni genes, but orientated in reverse to the direction of transcription of the tni genes. Consequently, the coding strand for this ORF is the same as for the mer operon. If so, transcription of this DNA fragment passes PIK-5 from the side of the mer operon. We analysed the DNA sequence from the region of the tni genes of Tn5053 in reverse direction, and found several orfs. Of main interest was orf-5, encoding a negatively charged protein with a motif close to the antirestriction motif of the proteins Ard (Fig. 2). The protein ORF-5 contains 147 amino acid residues of summary charge −1. It is encoded by orf-5 at positions 7511–7954 on the complementary strand of the tniA gene (positions numbered according to the nucleotide sequence of Tn5053, deposited in DBJ/EMBL/GenBank under accession number L40585).

Little variation was observed during the replicate experiments. The standard deviation for

the antirestriction results is 25% or less. Data on antirestriction activity of the recombinant plasmid pKLH53.1, containing Tn5053, are given in Table 2. The factor of restriction relief (R) is about 100. We suspected that the nucleotide sequence of the mercury-resistance transposon Tn5053 contains a fragment encoding an antirestriction protein. We used both insertion and deletion mutants of Tn5053 for all transposition genes (tni) as well as plasmid constructs containing various fragments of the Tn5053 DNA, while searching for the locus responsible for the antirestriction activity (Fig. 1). The results of searches selleck chemicals for the determinant of antirestriction activity Pifithrin�� within Tn5053 are shown in Table 2. It is evident that neither insertion (plasmids pKLH53.1tniA, pKLH53.1tniB2) or deletion (plasmids pKLH53.1tniQ2 and pKLH53.1tniQ1) mutations of the tni genes have any effect on antirestriction activity: about 100-fold decrease in EcoKI restriction level is preserved. Deletion of the major part of the mer operon (plasmid

pTLΔHindIII) completely removed the effect of antirestriction (Table 2). We assumed that the location of the gene coding for an antirestriction protein is within the mer operon. However, the recombinant plasmids pTLHindIII-ClaI and pTL2.5 with fragments HindIII-ClaI and HindIII from the mer operon (without the merR gene) in vector pUC19 show no antirestriction effect (Table 2). No antirestriction effect was also observed for the hybrid plasmid pKLH53.2, containing all the genes tni Tn5053 under its own promoter (in vector pACYC184; Fig. 1, Table 2). A paradox appeared: the mer operon together with the transposition genes (tni) of Tn5053 produce an antirestriction effect, while the plasmids with separately cloned mer operon or tni genes show no antirestriction effect.

We considered that the nucleotide sequence coding for the ORF with antirestriction activity is located within the region of the tni genes, but orientated in reverse to the direction of transcription of the tni genes. Consequently, the coding strand for this ORF is the same as for the mer operon. If so, transcription of this DNA fragment passes ADAMTS5 from the side of the mer operon. We analysed the DNA sequence from the region of the tni genes of Tn5053 in reverse direction, and found several orfs. Of main interest was orf-5, encoding a negatively charged protein with a motif close to the antirestriction motif of the proteins Ard (Fig. 2). The protein ORF-5 contains 147 amino acid residues of summary charge −1. It is encoded by orf-5 at positions 7511–7954 on the complementary strand of the tniA gene (positions numbered according to the nucleotide sequence of Tn5053, deposited in DBJ/EMBL/GenBank under accession number L40585).

Little variation was observed during the replicate experiments. The standard deviation for

the antirestriction results is 25% or less. Data on antirestriction activity of the recombinant plasmid pKLH53.1, containing Tn5053, are given in Table 2. The factor of restriction relief (R) is about 100. We suspected that the nucleotide sequence of the mercury-resistance transposon Tn5053 contains a fragment encoding an antirestriction protein. We used both insertion and deletion mutants of Tn5053 for all transposition genes (tni) as well as plasmid constructs containing various fragments of the Tn5053 DNA, while searching for the locus responsible for the antirestriction activity (Fig. 1). The results of searches selleck chemical for the determinant of antirestriction activity Ku-0059436 purchase within Tn5053 are shown in Table 2. It is evident that neither insertion (plasmids pKLH53.1tniA, pKLH53.1tniB2) or deletion (plasmids pKLH53.1tniQ2 and pKLH53.1tniQ1) mutations of the tni genes have any effect on antirestriction activity: about 100-fold decrease in EcoKI restriction level is preserved. Deletion of the major part of the mer operon (plasmid

pTLΔHindIII) completely removed the effect of antirestriction (Table 2). We assumed that the location of the gene coding for an antirestriction protein is within the mer operon. However, the recombinant plasmids pTLHindIII-ClaI and pTL2.5 with fragments HindIII-ClaI and HindIII from the mer operon (without the merR gene) in vector pUC19 show no antirestriction effect (Table 2). No antirestriction effect was also observed for the hybrid plasmid pKLH53.2, containing all the genes tni Tn5053 under its own promoter (in vector pACYC184; Fig. 1, Table 2). A paradox appeared: the mer operon together with the transposition genes (tni) of Tn5053 produce an antirestriction effect, while the plasmids with separately cloned mer operon or tni genes show no antirestriction effect.

We considered that the nucleotide sequence coding for the ORF with antirestriction activity is located within the region of the tni genes, but orientated in reverse to the direction of transcription of the tni genes. Consequently, the coding strand for this ORF is the same as for the mer operon. If so, transcription of this DNA fragment passes Dipeptidyl peptidase from the side of the mer operon. We analysed the DNA sequence from the region of the tni genes of Tn5053 in reverse direction, and found several orfs. Of main interest was orf-5, encoding a negatively charged protein with a motif close to the antirestriction motif of the proteins Ard (Fig. 2). The protein ORF-5 contains 147 amino acid residues of summary charge −1. It is encoded by orf-5 at positions 7511–7954 on the complementary strand of the tniA gene (positions numbered according to the nucleotide sequence of Tn5053, deposited in DBJ/EMBL/GenBank under accession number L40585).

Computers and Education 2009; 53: 1285–1296. Julie Menzies1, Carly Tibbins2, Claire Callens2, Heather Duncan1, Kevin Morris1, John Marriott3 1Birmingham Children’s Hospital, Birmingham, UK, 2Medicines for Children Research Network, Birmingham, UK, 3University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK Consulting with representatives from the public in a meaningful way

helps to ensure optimal research design1. The research instrument was a digitally recorded focus group designed to determine who, what and how researchers should engage with in future qualitative work exploring the design of Pharmacokinetic Lumacaftor in vivo (PK) studies in children. The outcome was a developed and strengthened protocol which satisfied NHS Research Ethics Integrated Research Application System (IRAS) requirements. Historically there has been a reluctance to conduct research in children; this is further complicated in paediatric pharmacokinetic (PK) research where multiple specimens are required, involving additional painful procedures2. PRESCRIBE (Pharmacokinetic REsearch Study in the CRitically Ill: facilitating the BEst design is a programme of research

which aims PF01367338 to determine the optimum design of PK research in children. A significant element of the project involves exploring the views and attitudes of stakeholders towards PK studies. Consumer consultation was undertaken in order to develop a reliable and acceptable research protocol which could achieve this aim. To conduct consumer involvement at the pre-protocol stage to determine: Who are the stakeholders in paediatric PK research? What do we need to ask them? What methods or forums should we use to communicate with stakeholders? A focus group was conducted with an established, expert panel of children and young people group (YPG) who meet regularly with a remit to improve the conduct of research in paediatrics, including pharmacy research. Six children aged 9–17years attended two sessions in April and July 2011. These sessions were digitally

recorded, transcribed and analysed using NVivo Enzalutamide software (NVivo 8). The YPG identified six key groups of stakeholders (children and young people, parents, nurses and research staff, doctors, hospital managers and research ethics committee members) who should be included in future qualitative work streams. Topics to discuss with stakeholders in future study designs included sampling considerations, potential pain, scarring, study duration, study requirements, hospital visits, staffing of the project and availability of the results. The YPG recommended keeping engagement with stakeholders simple using face-to-face methods such as focus groups, interviews and personally distributed questionnaires. Above all the group felt strongly that future work must directly include children and young people, allowing them to have a say in the way future research is designed.

The Nha1 Na+(K+)/H+ antiporter is a constitutively expressed housekeeping protein that uses the inward gradient of H+ (created by the Pma1 H+-ATPase) as a driving force to export alkali metal cations and whose activity plays a role in the maintenance of

plasma-membrane potential and regulation of cell volume and internal pH (Sychrova et al., 1999; Kinclova-Zimmermannova et al., 2006; Arino et al., 2010). The third system exporting alkali metal cations, Ena Na+(K+)-ATPase (Haro et al., 1991), is the main sodium and lithium detoxifying system in S. cerevisiae, but it also contributes significantly to high potassium tolerance (Banuelos et al., 1998). To study the role of the five main S. cerevisiae potassium transporters in anhydrobiosis, we used a set of isogenic strains lacking buy Tanespimycin one or more genes encoding the plasma-membrane K+ transporters in the BY4741 genetic background and studied

the ability of mutant cells to survive desiccation and the subsequent rehydration processes. Our results revealed buy ZD1839 that whereas the functionality of potassium exporting systems is not important for surviving desiccation, it is the activity of potassium uptake systems, and mainly that of Trk2, which is crucial to successfully survive anhydrobiosis. The S. cerevisiae BY4741 strain (MATa his3Δ1 leu2Δ met15Δ ura3Δ; EUROSCARF) and its derivatives were used. Mutants

lacking genes for potassium transporters were prepared by homologous recombination using the Cre-loxP system (Guldener et al., 1996) and their genotypes are listed in Table 1. To verify learn more the phenotypes of single trk1Δ or trk2Δ mutants, two or three independently prepared mutants were used. Yeast strains were routinely grown in standard liquid YPD medium (1% extract, 2% peptone, 2% glucose) supplemented with 50 mM or 100 mM KCl in an orbital shaker at 160 r.p.m. min−1 at 30 °C. Solid YPD media were supplemented with 2% agar. To follow the growth resumption of stationary cells, the growth rate of 100-μL cultures in a 96-well plate was followed in an absorbance microplate reader (BioTek Instruments, Winooski, VT); eight parallel cultures for one strain were run in each experiment, and the experiment was repeated three times. Yeast cells were grown to the stationary phase (40–42 h) in YPD with 50 mM KCl, harvested, washed and dehydrated by convective drying at 30 °C for 15–16 h. Dehydrated biomass was rehydrated in distilled water or in 50 mM KCl for 10 min at room temperature. Cell survival was estimated using either the fluorochrome primulin and fluorescence microscopy (Rapoport & Meysel, 1985) or after appropriate dilution of the rehydrated biomass, plating on solid YPD with 50 mM KCl and counting the colonies (CFU) after 2 days of growth at 30 °C.

Baseline samples for CD4 cell count, VL and resistance should be taken. Treatment should be commenced immediately as per Recommendation 5.4.3 above. Triple therapy should be given to the neonate (see Section 8: Neonatal management). 5.5.1 Untreated women with a CD4 cell count ≥350 cells/μL and a VL <50 HIV RNA copies/mL (confirmed on a separate assay): Can be treated with zidovudine monotherapy

or with HAART (including abacavir/lamivudine/zidovudine). Veliparib Grading: 1D Can aim for a vaginal delivery. Grading: 1C Should exclusively formula feed their infant. Grading: 1D Elite controllers are defined as the very small proportion of HIV-positive individuals who, without treatment, have undetectable HIV RNA in plasma as assessed by more than one different VL assay on more than one occasion. It is estimated that 1-in-300 HIV-positive individuals are elite controllers [95]. In the absence of data from RCTs on elite controllers, recommendations are based on RCT and observational data on all pregnant HIV-positive women. In the original zidovudine monotherapy study (ACTG 076) the transmission rate if maternal VL was <1000 HIV RNA copies/mL was 1% (range 0–7%) [16]. Treatment reduced transmission even among women with low or undetectable HIV VL, suggesting that the effects of treatment HDAC inhibitor were not all related

to decreasing maternal viraemia but may also be related to reducing HIV in the genital tract and/or peri-exposure prophylaxis of the infant by placental transfer of zidovudine. A meta analysis of transmission outcomes in several major USA and European studies Dichloromethane dehalogenase also demonstrated that an HIV VL <1000 HIV RNA copies/mL at delivery was associated with a relatively low risk of transmission and that ARV prophylaxis offered additional clinically significant protection [96]. Zidovudine has been shown to reduce cervicovaginal shedding of HIV [2] and there are no data to suggest that HAART is more effective than zidovudine at reducing cervicovaginal shedding in women with a plasma HIV

VL <50 copies/mL. Therefore, zidovudine monotherapy is an option in this setting. There are no data to support the use of intravenous zidovudine infusion during labour in elite controllers. HAART may provide more reassurance about prevention of MTCT but will also expose both mother and infant to more potential drug toxicities. The choice of HAART is as per Recommendation 5.3.3. Data on the mode of delivery in elite controllers are sparse and limited to case reports [97]. The benefits of PLCS at various levels of viraemia are discussed in Section 7.2 (Mode of delivery). There are no data to support the use of PLCS for PMTCT when the VL is <50 HIV RNA copies/mL in women on ART. The Writing Group therefore recommends vaginal delivery for all elite controllers on ART. 5.6.

The PCR products were digested with BamHI and XhoI and inserted between the same restriction sites of the plasmid pET-26b+ to form pETSN, pETSB and pETSC, respectively. The three recombined plasmids were transformed into E. coli. BL21 (DE3) plys competent cells and plated onto Luria–Bertani (LB) plates with 30 μg mL−1 kanamycin. DNA sequences were sequenced by the Nanjing GenScript Biotechnology Co., Ltd. The plasmids pETSN, pETSB and pETSC which contain the correct gene sequence of the wild-type enzyme, served as the templates for DNA family shuffling. Initially, the target gene of the enzymes was amplified using this website PCR with

the primers described above. The PCR products were purified and subjected to DNase I digestion to generate random fragments according to the method described by Suen et al. (2004). The procedures for DNA shuffling were performed based on the method described by Stemmer (1994) with minor modifications. The digested products were subjected to 2% agarose gel electrophoresis, and DNA fragments of 50–100 bp were recovered for primer-less DNA assembly. Pfu DNA polymerase was used in the PCR method to reduce new mutations that may be introduced into the parental http://www.selleckchem.com/products/Everolimus(RAD001).html gene sequences. The gradient PCR program of the primer-less PCR was 94 °C for 5 min, followed by 45 cycles of 94 °C for 30 s, 55 °C for 45 s, 50 °C for 45 s, 47 °C for 45 s, 44 °C

for 45 s, and 72 °C for 2 min. The products of primer-less PCR were purified and diluted 10 times for PCR using the primers PNB and PNX (Table 1). After heating for 5 min at 94 °C, the reaction program was 94 °C for 1 min, 56.6 °C for 1 min, 72 °C for 2 min (30 cycles), with a final extension of 72 °C for 10 min. The mutated PCR products were purified, digested with BamHI and XhoI, and inserted into the pET-26b+ vector, which was cut using the same enzymes, followed by the transformation into E. coli BL21(DE3)pLysS competent cells to obtain the mutant library. The mutant library was primarily screened on LB plates containing 30 μg mL−1 of kanamycin and 2%

(w/v) skim milk (Tange et al., 1994). After 24–48 h of cultivation at 37 °C, colonies that formed larger clear Rebamipide zones were isolated using sterile toothpicks and transferred to a 5-mL liquid LB culture containing 30 μg mL−1 kanamycin. The bacterial isolates were cultured at 37 °C for 12 h, induced for 4 h by the addition of isopropyl-β-d-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) and centrifuged. The pellets of bacteria were resuspended and diluted to OD600 nm = 0.1 with 100 mM phosphate buffer (pH 8.0). The cells were lysed by sonication, and the crude enzyme fibrinolytic activity in the supernatant was assayed using the fibrin plate method (Astrup & Mullertz, 1952). Those colonies showing higher fibrinolytic activity compared to wild-type NK were selected as the parents for the next round of shuffling.

We recorded motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) from relaxed hand and leg muscles of healthy subjects who were reading silently hand- or leg-related action, sensorial (non-somatic) and abstract verbs conjugated either in future or past tense. The amplitude of MEPs recorded from the hand was higher during reading hand-related action verbs conjugated in

the future than in the past. No future-related modulation of leg muscles activity was found during reading leg-related action verbs. In a similar vein, no future-related change of hand EPZ015666 or leg muscles reactivity was found for abstract or sensorial verbs. These results indicate that the anticipatory mirroring of hand actions may be triggered by linguistic representations and not only by direct action observation. “
“Understanding brain reorganization following long-term spinal cord injuries is important for optimizing recoveries based on residual find more function as well as developing brain-controlled assistive devices. Although it has been shown that the motor cortex undergoes partial reorganization within a few weeks after peripheral and spinal cord injuries, it is not known if the motor cortex of rats is capable of large-scale reorganization after longer recovery periods. Here we determined

the organization of the rat (Rattus norvegicus) motor cortex at 5 or more months after chronic lesions of the spinal cord at cervical levels using intracortical microstimulation. The results show that, in the rats with the lesions, stimulation of neurons in the de-efferented forelimb motor cortex no longer evokes movements of the forelimb. Instead, movements of the body parts in the adjacent representations, namely the whiskers and neck were evoked. In addition, at many sites, movements of the ipsilateral forelimb were observed at threshold currents. The extent of representations of the eye,

jaw and tongue movements was unaltered by the lesion. Thus, large-scale reorganization of the motor cortex leads to complete filling-in of the de-efferented cortex by neighboring representations following long-term partial spinal cord injuries at cervical levels in adult rats. “
“Oligodendrocytes are the myelin-forming cells of the central nervous system that facilitate transmission of axonal electrical impulses. Using transgenic mice Montelukast Sodium expressing 2′,3′ cyclic nucleotide 3′ phosphodiesterase (CNPase)-enhanced green fluorescent protein, a three-dimensional reconstruction tool and analysis, we illustrate that three morphologically different oligodendrocyte types exist in the hippocampus. Those of the ramified type have the most numerous processes, the largest cell body, occupy the largest area and form beaded-like structures, due to mitochondria aggregates, along the processes. Stellar-shaped oligodendrocytes have smaller cell bodies and their processes cover a significantly smaller area. Those of the smooth subtype have a small cell body with at most two processes.